On the Naming of Curriculum Standards02

(c) The broad-sensed curriculum.At the beginning of the 20th century,some American people were dissatisfied with the school subjects,subject education and subject curriculum,and they consequently defined the curriculum as the total (real) experience that students obtained under the guidance of the school.Hence,the concepts of curriculum have been broadened.

(d) Two controversial points from the broad-sensed concept of curriculum.The broad-sensed concept of curriculum began to appear in the 1930s,when a dispute arose in the educational circle in the United States.Their dispute centered around two points:value and course.a) The value dispute refers to such a dispute as the one directed to Dewey when some scholars criticized him for his metaphor of education with growth that could spread in a wrong direction.Thus the broad-sensed concept of curriculum has been attacked for its inclusion of negative learning.After all,students go to school to learn something good,not something bad.b) The course dispute was brought about by the view of education and philosophy that emphasized activity and the course of experience.Curriculum contained not only the content of teaching,but also activity and methods.The concept of curriculum was broadened to include the activity and methods of teaching.The scholars in favor of this broadened concept of curriculum would believe that it was progressive and could solve many problems caused by the narrow-sensed curriculum.Those in favor of the narrow-sensed concept of curriculum would take it as “offside”and “generalization”.

(e) The different views between the curriculum academia and the public.Since the 1930s,curriculum has been defined in the American curriculum academia as the result of real learning experience and school.Scholars who accept the view of progressive education,open education,hidden curriculum,and reconceptualism,and who are critical of subject curricula,are all inclined to welcome the broad-sensed concept of curriculum.They stress the meaning of “currere” as a verb and reject the meaning of “curriculum” as a noun.On the contrary,people who accept Tyler's notion and the pubic are in favor of the narrow-sensed concept of curriculum.The differences between the two are shown in the following table.

Table 2 Comparison between the broad-sensed and narrow-sensed curricula

The differences and disputes on the definitions and relationship between learning,education,teaching and curriculum reflect differences in the understanding of the meaning and concept of the four terms.It is natural that people have different views,but some unnecessary disputes can sometimes be eliminated to a certain degree if attempt is made to clarify the terms.Due to the lack of consensus on the meaning of learning,education,teaching,and curriculum,a lot of different terms and disputes on the terms occurred.Hence,there has been disagreement on the issue of naming.

4.The complex relation between teaching and curricula

4.1 The differences between what to teach and how to teach

When it comes to the clarification of some core issues in education,it has been a long tradition to settle two questions:what to teach and how to teach.The two questions are of different nature but closely connected.What to teach involves textbooks (not the material things and teaching aids),and how to teach is associated with teaching methods.In the beginning of the 13th chapter of Dewey's Democratism and Education,it was clearly pointed out that teaching materials and teaching methods were integrated.Therefore,the two cannot be independent to each other.If teaching materials and teaching methods correspond respectively to curriculum and teaching,then in general curriculum and teaching are closely related.Their interrelation can be shown in the following.What to teach-＞Educational content-＞Teaching materials-＞Curriculum

How to teach-＞Educational approaches-＞Teaching methods-＞Teaching Figure 1 The independence and interaction of curriculum and teaching

4.2 Discussion of what to teach before how to teach

In many cases,what to teach is considered prior to the discussion of how to teach.There are four possible reasons.(1) People tend to think that it is the right order of thought to decide what to teach before the discussion of how to teach student.(2) When a teacher prepares his lessons,he/she is more likely to focus first on what to teach and then on the corresponding activities of the teacher and students.(3) In the West in the 19th century,when the primary and secondary school system was established,the focus and concern were on the content of education and what subjects to be taught,rather than on how to teach.(4) Teachers in primary and secondary schools are often informed of the teaching program and scheme (i.e.teaching materials and course) when they begin to teach.This is the reason why “teaching materials and method” is a conventional term in education,not “teaching method and materials”.When what to teach is discussed before how to teach,the concept of teaching method is narrowed and placed behind teaching materials.Accordingly,it is rational to consider the curriculum before the teaching itself.The relationship between the curriculum and teaching is illustrated as follows:

First to reflect on what to teach -＞then how to teach

First to reflect on the teaching materials -＞then the method of teaching

First to reflect on the curriculum -＞then the instruction Figure 2 The relationship between curriculum and instruction

4.3 A broad concept of curriculum should include teaching method

When the narrow-sensed concept of curriculum was under criticism,a broad-sensed concept of curriculum was developed.The curriculum is no longer the content of education and what to teach.The broad-sensed curriculum deals with not only what to teach,but also how to teach.Therefore,curriculum consists of both the content and method of education.With further consideration,we may find that the broad-sensed curriculum has already included teaching or instruction.Currently,the broad-sensed and the narrow-sensed curricula co-exist,and no consensus has been reached.The relationship between the two types of curricula and teaching is shown in the following figure.

What to teach( narrow-sensed curriculum)-＞Teaching materials-＞How to teach-＞Curriculum before teaching

Educational activity( broad-sensed curriculum)-＞What to teach and how to teach-＞Teaching materials and teaching method-＞Curriculum including teaching

Process and results of education(broad-sensed curriculum)-＞Expansion to results unexpected education-＞Curriculum including teaching and more beyond education

Figure 3 Relationship between the broad-sensed and the narrow-sensed curricula and teaching

4.4 Cases in the United States concerning the sequential relationship between curricula and teaching

The twentieth century witnessed several important events in the United States,which contributed to sequential and inclusive relationship of curricula and teaching.

(1) Establishment of specialized departments.In 1938,Teachers College in Columbia University set up the Department of Curriculum and Teaching,which was the first department named as Curriculum ＆ Teaching in the United States.The two academic research fields of curriculum and teaching have since been made separate from the overall research of education and administration of education.Curriculum and teaching departments,institutes and relevant degree courses began to appear in an increasing manner.In English,however,“curriculum and instruction” is more popular than “curriculum and teaching”.The use of these names has helped people to get familiarized with adopted term “curriculum and instruction”.

(2) Important academic monographs.After curriculum and instruction became a separate and independent research area,an influential book entitled Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction by R Tyler,was published in 1949 by the University of Chicago.This book was developed out of the Tyler's lecture notes.Four essential elements pertinent to the research of curricula were discussed in the book.As far as the relationship between curriculum and teaching is concerned,four points are worth noticing here.(a) Instruction rather than teaching was used in the book title.(b) The title enhanced popularity of the term “curriculum and instruction”.(c) The book used the concept of narrow-sensed curriculum,i.e.the learning program.Furthermore,the curriculum was designed before instruction,clearly regarding instruction as implementation of a curriculum.(d) There is not much discussion on instruction,but the fourth major aspect of evaluation in curriculum theorizing was done after instruction,as if instruction was embedded in the development of the curriculum.

(3) Taxonomy of the behavior objectives.In 1956,Bloom put forward the taxonomy of educational objectives for the cognitive domain,advancing the theory of behavior objectives.The term “behavior objective” was originally used in curriculum development.In the 1960s,when it encountered a lot of criticism,it was less used in the field of curriculum.However,it has been popular in designing teaching objectives when teachers prepare their teaching.There are fewer specified behavior objectives in curriculum,but more in teaching.Once again this indicates that curriculum is a superordinate concept and takes priority over teaching.

4.5 The stable relationship between teaching and a curriculum

Obviously,the stable relationship between teaching and a curriculum is based on the definition made of teaching and curriculum.Once the concept or the sense of teaching and curriculum has changed,the stable relationship may change accordingly.There are usually two common types of relationship between teaching and a curriculum.

(1) “Broad-sensed teaching” —broad-sensed teaching and a narrow-sensed curriculum.The concept of teaching is alike with,close to,and overlaps with that of education.Teaching is regarded as broad-sensed when the meaning of teaching is close or equal to that of education,and when curriculum appears as a narrow-sensed concept.Only then can we develop the term of “teaching before curriculum” and “teaching including curriculum”,also the idea of “teaching and curriculum” instead of “curriculum and teaching”.Under this concept,curriculum is the content of teaching,and should be dealt with in the process of teaching.Or it may be said that teaching lays out the teaching contents and subjects.Thus teaching is prior to curriculum.It is especially the case when teaching is defined as the process of “teaching and learning”,when “teaching” and “learning” are independent of each other,or when curriculum is defined as the teaching material,content,subject or program.These views belong to the idea of narrow-sensed curriculum and broad-sensed teaching.

(2) “Broad-sensed curriculum”—broad-sensed curriculum and narrow-sensed teaching.The narrow-sensed teaching confines “teaching” exclusively to instruction,to instruction that is based on given and ready-made teaching materials and that stresses teaching skills and techniques.In this case,curriculum assumes a broad sense,meaning almost the same as “education”.Hence we have the idea of broad-sensed curriculum and narrow-sensed teaching.Under this concept,we may have such views as “curriculum before teaching” and “curriculum including teaching”,and such relevant wording as “curriculum and teaching” rather than “teaching and curriculum”.Teaching is regarded as items defined in the curriculum.Matters of teaching are laid down in the curriculum and put into action only when curriculum is being implemented.

Different views on the concepts of teaching and curriculum co-exist,and it is hard to expect a consensus in the near future.So the stable relation between teaching and curriculum will continue.The controversies nowadays originate from the notion of a curriculum in the twentieth century.With the concept being broadened,the stable relationship between education,teaching and materials (or between the content of education and that of teaching) has been forced to change.Since the semantic meaning of the concepts of teaching and curriculum is subject to change,the relation between teaching and curriculum is unstable,and,consequently,the names for the content of basic education and norm for teaching ＆ learning are subject to change.

5.The naming of the content and activity of basic education

There are four types of naming,i.e.naming based upon the terms or concepts of learning,education,teaching and curriculum.Such respective names as standard,guideline,syllabus and program may be adopted.The strengths and weaknesses of the names will be discussed in the following.

5.1 Differences between standard,syllabus,guideline and program

The names of the content and activity of basic education should be authoritative and legitimate because they are intended for their implementation in primary and secondary schools.If these two characteristics cannot be literally recognized,they should be developed on the basis of the consensus and feeling of the people who use them.The term,standard,has the sense of authority,while guideline and syllabus give us the impression of being brief.If it is complicated,the term,program,may be used.As to the legitimacy,it can be generally understood that an “Act” is made through legislation,and an “administrative regulation” is issued and implemented by other administrative agencies.Acts and administrative regulations have their own formats and styles.In Taiwan,terms such as a syllabus and a program are not allowed to use in administrative ordinances.Therefore,it cannot be changed into a curriculum syllabus or a curriculum program.This is a reason why curriculum standards were changed to curriculum guidance in Taiwan in 2000.Every country has its law system and historical tradition,so people cannot use these names at will.

5.2 Coverage of names

It can be discovered nowadays that when the content and activity are to be defined,there are two common coverage areas,i.e.the broad-sensed and the narrow-sensed education that were stated above:education of one single subject or the overall content and activity of school education.When it comes to the naming of these areas,sometimes different names can be used for distinction;at other times,the same name is used.In Mainland China,different names are usually used for distinction,while in Taiwan curriculum standards were used in the past for the overall concept of education and “××Subject Curriculum Standards” was used for different subjects.Currently one overall name is used.In the USA,different subjects have their own standards,but they are quite different as far as the content is concerned.The standards of history and geography lay stress on the narration of the subject matter,while science education standards include science instruction,professional development of science teachers,evaluation of science education,science content,science education programs and the science education system.Standards of science education does not use “curriculum” as its name,and it covers so much as to include off-campus science education.

5.3 Naming with the word curriculum

When a name is given with the word curriculum,it often appears as names like curriculum standards,curriculum guidelines and syllabuses in the Chinese mainland,Hong Kong and Taiwan.The advantages and disadvantages of this kind of naming are as follows.

(1) Advantages

(a) It has a great many advocates in the curriculum academia.(b) It also means that there is one more important area of research in the curriculum academia.(c) The curriculum theories function as a direct guideline for basic education.(d) The results of the discussion of dozens of years' research on curriculum development can be rapidly transferred.(e) If the term curriculum which was used in the past (e.g.curriculum standard was use in Taiwan) is changed into curriculum guidelines,its historical continuity will be observed.

(2) Disadvantages

(a) Teachers,parents and the public are inclined to use the narrow-sensed curriculum.With the narrow-sensed curriculum,many specifications do not belong to curriculum,e.g.the requirements concerning teaching and the operation of the school,which are not appropriate to be included in a curriculum.(b) Since it is named with curriculum,more attention is paid to the narrow-sensed curriculum.Consequently,other relevant issues will be ignored,and it will be hard to have an overall consideration.Moreover,when the many requirements needed in the course of the implementation of the curriculum cannot be taken into consideration,the curriculum tends to get separate from its implementation.(c) If the specifications in the narrow-sensed curriculum appear as indexes of aims and abilities,it is most likely that people concern themselves only with the results to be achieved,but very little with the statement of the process of the achievement.It may also cause confusion when writers compile textbooks and teachers and learners conduct activities in teaching and learning.(d) Advocates of the broad-sensed curriculum may think that it is correct and reasonable for curriculum to be used when naming.In fact,when the content and activity of basic education are specified and planned before the process of teaching,it definitely becomes a narrow-sensed curriculum.Therefore,the broad-sensed curriculum cannot become the motivation of naming with curriculum.On the contrary,naming with curriculum casts doubt to the relevant statement of the broad-sensed curriculum.

Posner assumes that curriculum planning consists of 12 elements:aim,conception or philosophy of education,content,characteristics of the targets,activity,materials,the principle of sequence,calendar,the teacher's practice and attitude,evaluation,administrative factors (including the structure,equipment and finance of a school),and other parts of the curriculum.Glatthorn argues that a good curriculum should contain the following:the format or style,the relationship with other resources (including other ordinances,requirements and examination system),the foci of the major requirements,sequence of targets (the position of each grade),and content (in accordance with the diversity and integration of the society).After a study of these arguments we find that many items mentioned by the scholars need to be included when curriculum is used as a name.

5.4 Naming with the word teaching

Mainland China used to adopt such names as teaching plans and syllabuses.The advantages and disadvantages of this kind of naming are as follows.

(1) Advantages

(a) It has a great many advocates in the teaching academia.It also means that there is one more important area of research in the teaching academia.(b) Teaching theory functions as a direct guideline for basic education.People are led to consider the quality of basic education from the perspective of teaching and learning.(c) The stipulated content range is enlarged,and many things pertinent to teaching and learning are included,and should be included.They become the core of the stipulated content so that attention is paid not only to the content of teaching,but also to the process of teaching and the needs of learning.In this way,people are encouraged to take an overall perspective when they make a plan and carefully consider everything concerning teaching and learning.(d) Naming with teaching compels people to think comprehensively about matters concerning teaching and learning so that things may be made easier when teaching is actually conducted and less attention is paid to the narrow-sensed curriculum.(e) Naming with teaching covers more things relevant to teaching and learning and goes well with the Chinese expression and mode of thought of the Chinese-speaking community.“jiaoxue” (teaching) means both teaching and learning.(f) If teaching was used in the past (e.g.teaching plan and syllabus in the Mainland China),it is advisable to name with teaching so as to maintain a kind of historical tradition.

(2) Disadvantages

(a) Those who will accept the American broad-sensed curriculum may feel the pressure and trouble in changing the name if they are in the tradition of naming with teaching and other people attempt to keep this tradition.(b) The academic circle is used to the term “curriculum and teaching”,and the meaning of teaching has been narrowed.If some scholars think that the meaning of teaching should not be so narrowed and insist on names with teaching,then disputes may occur in the academic field.(c) If people hastily adopt names with teaching and do not give comprehensive consideration to the many matters concerning teaching and learning,many problems will occur during implementation,just like the case with naming with curriculum.Furthermore,theoretically speaking,naming with teaching will include more things that naming with curriculum.Naming with teaching may as well miss those that naming with curriculum missed.

5.5 Naming with the word education

Mainland China,the United States,England and Germany are typical cases of naming with the word education,e.g.education standards,education plans and education laws.The advantages and disadvantages of this method are as follows.

(1) Advantages

(a) This way of naming is supported by the majority of people in the educational circle.(b) Educational theory functions as a direct guideline for basic education.(c) The range of the content is expanded,and more education-related matters are to be included.The stress will not be laid only on the content of teaching,but also on various aspects of school education.Thus people are encouraged to take an overall perspective when they plan things,and success will be ensured during implementation.(d) Naming with education corresponds to the term school education,and avoids disputes on teaching and curriculum regarding their concepts,theories and points of view.

For example,School Regulations in the late Qing Dynasty specified teaching,learning and the school system as well as subjects,hours and content.The Education Reform Act 1988 of Britain was one that was passed to reform education.The whole act consists of four parts plus some schedules.The first part involves the reform of primary and secondary schools,falling into five chapters.The first chapter,composed of 25 articles,discusses the curriculum,which includes the preface (provisions of various responsibilities),principal provisions (including general requirements of the national courses,subjects,stages,the responsibilities of setting national courses,intervention in school affairs by people off campus),religious education,duties for meeting certain needs,the advisory committee of religious education,curriculum and evaluation committee,particular situations,additional clauses and so on.The other chapters deal with the operation of regional schools,finance,human resource,etc.As for the detailed specifications of the national courses of various subjects,there was a separate publication.Another instance was the 2004 fundamental education program of Bade Wurtemberg,Germany.This program consists of preface,the guidelines of the program (including the goals,methods of teaching and school measures) and the standards for various subjects (subdivided into two parts:explanation of the goals and the methods of teaching,and the target achievement and requirements of Grade Two and Grade Four).

(2)Disadvantages

5.6 Name with the word learning

The leaning guidelines issued by Japan are a specific example of naming with learning.The advantages and disadvantages of this kind of naming are as follows.

(1) Advantages

(a) People will pay more attention to students' learning and realize that learning should be the core of all things.(b) The content of learning is not the only thing that deserves attention.More attention will be given to the learning process and teaching activities of learning.

(2) Disadvantages

The name does not match its meaning.The content of learning remains the same with no learning-related matters or operations being added.Trouble would be caused during implementation.For instance,when Japan promulgated the learning guidelines,the word “learning” was used,but the content remained similar to that of the curriculum standards in the Mainland.

It is,therefore,obvious that different names have different advantages and disadvantages.We shall face two problems when naming.One is whether we have definite means to compare names and determine a name when it is difficult to decide whether it is “absolutely” and “definitely” a better name than any other name.The other is that a certain name may have a theoretical advantage over the others,but it is not easy to understand and take the advantage,and especially to avoid its theoretical disadvantages.Before the solution of these problems,the dispute or controversy over the use of a certain name is superficial and cannot contribute to the actual formation of the form and content of a name.

6.Conclusion:a summary of the key points on the naming of the

content and activity of basic education After the above analysis of the concepts of learning,education,teaching and curriculum,comparison of the terms adopted in different counties and regions and a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of adopted names,five key points can be summarized concerning the content and activity of basic education.

6.1 Self-determination

Different countries and regions do not see eye to eye with one another on the naming of content and activity of basic education.Different names are adopted,and,therefore,we should show respect to their own determination.

6.2 Ever-changing

The names of the content and activity of basic education in different countries and regions will change with time.Therefore,we should not hope that the current names will last for ever.

6.3 Manifestation of viewpoints

Countries and regions have their own consideration when they adopt different names.Therefore,the adopted names reflect their different points of view.Renaming can be conducted only when the academic views have changed or when the political situation has changed.

6.4 With both advantages and disadvantages

Strictly speaking,the names adopted by different countries and regions have both advantages and disadvantages.Therefore,once a name is adopted,we should make attempt to take its advantages and avoid its disadvantages.

6.5 Names with well-matched content

Names are the reflection of certain viewpoints and stands.If different names are used to refer to similar content,a problem of ill-matching between the names and their content will occur.Hence,once a certain name is adopted,the content should match it well.After all,things may sound correct and be made easier if their names have proper content.

With the above five key points,the author advocates the concepts of narrow-sensed curriculum and the traditional concept of teaching (i.e.teaching and learning),favors naming with the word teaching,and opposes instant changes of other names.There should be sound reasons for the change of names and mechanisms for doing so.Further attempt should be made to study the naming issue so that relevant theories will be formulated.

References:

1.Yang Long-lih ＆ Pan Li-chu.The linguistic analysis of “jiaoxue”.Journal of Educational Studies (Beijing Normal University),2006,(1):24-35.

2. J.A.Comenius.Magna Didactics.Tanslated by Fu Rengan.Taibei:Wunan Press,1990:1.

3.Yang Long-lih ＆ Pan Li-chu.Curriculum Organization:Theory and Practice.Taipei:Higher Education Press,2005:294,5.

4. Wang Cesan.The Epistemology of Teaching.Beijing:Beijing Normal University Press,2002:3.

5. Cong Lixin.The formation and meaning of “jiaoxue”.Journal of Beijing Normal University(Social Science),2007,(5):5-12.

6.Yang Long-lih.On the essential meaning of curriculum.Journal of Educational Studies (The Chinese University of Hong Kong),2006,34(1):97-116.

7.Shi Langfang.Curriculum and curriculum theories,in Cui Yunhuo (ed.):Curriculum·Liangfang.East China Normal University Press,2007.

8.National Research Council.National science education standards ［M］.Washington,DC:National Academy Press,1996.

9.G.J.Posner.Analyzing the curriculum［M］.N.Y.:McGraw-Hill,2004:41.

10.A.A.Glatthorn.The principal as curriculum leader［M］.California:Corwin Press,Inc,2000:42.

11.Department for Education.The National curriculum:handbook for primary teachers in England［M］.London:HMSO,1995.

12.Ministerium für Kultus,Jugend und Sport Baden-Württemberg.Bildungsplan 2004 Grundschule［M］.Stuttgart:Ministerium für Kultus,Jugend und Sport Baden-Württemberg,2004.